1.

 a) de facto - happened without any formal planning, i.e. IBM PC
      de jure - legal standards adopted by some authorised standardization body

 b) ITU: recommendations are developed in study groups, which are
divided into working parties->expert teams->ad hoc groups. Countries
can choose whenever they will accept an ITU-T recommendation as a
local standard or not.

      ISO:Consists of Technical Committees, which have subcommittees,
which are divided into working groups. The work is made in WG:s by
volunteers. ISO is a member of ITU-T.

      ETSI: Technical Organisation produces and approves technical
standards, encompasses ETSI Procets, Technical Committees and Special
Committees. 
http://www.st.jyu.fi/~jarliim/Opiskelu/datasiirto/

  c) Finnish Communications Regulatory Authority (Ficora) is an agency
under the Ministry of Transport and Communications Finland with
responsibility for radio, telecommunications and postal
administration and television fee management. Ficora coordinates
telecommunications standardization in Finland.
Ficora sets up national working groups for priority areas in
telecommunications standardization and is involved in the preparation
of international standards.
The most important international cooperating bodies are the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) in Geneva and the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in Nice. 

2. a)
 Album ::= SEQUENCE {
  name IA5String,
  genre IA5String,
  year INTEGER,
  songs SEQUENCE OF Song,
  artist Artist }

 Artist ::= SEQUENCE {
  name IA5String,
  birthday IA5String,
  albums INTEGER }

 Song ::= SEQUENCE {
  name IA5STring,
  time INTEGER }

   b) Basic Encoding Rules
     - give one or more ways to represent any ASN.1 value as an octet
string.
     - is the standard for intercharging these values in OSI
     - needed to transform data specified in ASN.1 to a standard
format that can be decoded on any system that has a corresponding
decoder
    (different systems may have different internal presentations of
     data -- such as the little-endian/big-endian difference)

3. a) Tree and Tabular Combined Notation, a notation for the specification
of tests for communication systems

   b)
1. suite overview part
 - a documentary feature comprised of indexes and page references
 - contains a table of contents and a description of the test suite
 - used to document the test suite to increase clarity and readability
 - quick overview of the entire test suite possible
2. declarations part
 - used for declaring types, variables, timers, points of control and
observation, and test components
 - all types used within this test suite declared
 - TTCN or ASN.1 type notation in a graphical table used
3. constraints part
 - used for describing the values sent or received
4. dynamic part
 - the actual tests described
 - contains all test cases, test steps, and default tables with test
events and verdicts
 - created in a hierarchical and nested manner, using test groups,
test cases, test steps and test events as building blocks

   c)
1 L!GetIN
2  L?NoBook
3   L!GoBack  F
4  L?IsBook
5   L?Loaned
6    L!GoBack I
7   L?Present
8    L!GoBack P

4. a) 1) error:  the calculator sends the NUM message, and does not
      receive it
      2) error:  the diagram ends abruptly, (no end state)
      3) OK
      
   b) chart1 is incorrect - a message is received before it's sent